U.S. Pat. No. 6,913,196 discloses a dual mode smart card controller (USB and ISO7816) that determines the type of card that is inserted into a slot. If the smart card is a USB smart card, the controller is adapted to pass control of the smart card to an external PC host USB hub circuit. If the smart card is an ISO7816 card, then control is handled by the dual mode controller. In another embodiment, the controller includes an embedded USB hub circuit to permit the controller to directly control both USB and ISO7816 smart cards. Exemplary control sequencing includes monitoring a C4 signal line for a pre-selected time period, or generating an enable signal if a USB smart card is detected. See also U.S. Pat. No. 7,150,397
US patent publication 2006/0226217 discloses a sleeve for electronic transaction card. A sleeve provides communications between an electronic transaction card and an intelligent electronic device. The intelligent electronic device may be a mobile phone or other device with or without network connectivity. The electronic transaction card may have magnetic field producing circuitry compatible with magnetic card readers, smartcard circuitry, other point-of-sale interfaces, or any combination thereof.
US patent publication 2005/0269402 discloses a financial transaction system utilizing multi-factor authentication to secure financial transactions. The following is claimed:                1. A portable transaction device comprising: memory to hold information regarding a financial card; a slot to interface with a re-programmable card; and software to generate single use transaction numbers.        2. The portable transaction device of claim 1 further comprising a biometric scanner where the portable transaction device is configured to combine biometric information with one or more additional authentication factors to secure financial transactions.        3. The portable transaction device of claim 1 further comprising a wireless interface to communicate with a secondary wireless device for an additional authentication factor.        
US patent application 2006/0213982 discloses a smartcard-enabled BPID Security Device integrates a smartcard reader with a biometric authentication component to provide secured access to electronic systems. The device allows for an individual to insert a smartcard into an aperture in the physical enclosure of the BPID Security Device, allowing the smartcard and the BPID Security Device to electronically communicate with each other. The smartcard-enabled BPID Security Device is based on a custom application specific integrated circuit that incorporates smartcard terminals, such that the BPID Security Device can communicate directly with an inserted smartcard. In an alternative embodiment of the invention, the smartcard-enabled BPID Security Device is based on a commercial off-the-shelf microprocessor, and may communicate with a commercial off-the-shelf microprocessor smartcard receiver using a serial, USB, or other type of communication protocol. The device allows for enrolling a user's credentials onto the smartcard-enabled BPID Security Device. The device also allows for authenticating an individual using the smartcard-enabled BPID Security Device.
US patent application 2006/0230437 discloses a secure and transparent digital credential sharing arrangement which utilizes one or more cryptographic levels of indirection to obfuscate a sharing entity's credentials from those entities authorized to share the credentials. A security policy table is provided which allows the sharing entity to selectively authorize or revoke digital credential sharing among a plurality of entities. Various embodiments of the invention provide for secure storage and retrieval of digital credentials from security tokens such as smart cards. The secure sharing arrangement may be implemented in hierarchical or non-hierarchical embodiments as desired.)
Glossary & Definitions
Unless otherwise noted, or as may be evident from the context of their usage, any terms, abbreviations, acronyms or scientific symbols and notations used herein are to be given their ordinary meaning in the technical discipline to which the disclosure most nearly pertains. The following terms, abbreviations and acronyms may be used throughout the descriptions presented herein and should generally be given the following meaning unless contradicted or elaborated upon by other descriptions set forth herein. Some of the terms set forth below may be registered trademarks (®).    Energy harvesting Also known as power harvesting, energy scavenging is the process by which energy may be captured and stored. Frequently this term is applied when speaking about small autonomous devices, like those used in sensor networks. A variety of different methods exist for harvesting energy, such as solar power, ocean tides, piezoelectricity, thermoelectricity, and physical motion.    Lanyard A lanyard, also spelled laniard, is a rope or cord often worn around the neck or wrist to carry something. Lanyards have started to appear on consumer electronics devices. With increasing miniaturization, many digital cameras, MP3 players, and USB memory sticks include lanyards, providing easy portability, and insurance against loss or dropping.    Proximity Card Proximity card is a generic name for contactless integrated circuit devices used for security access or payment systems. It can refer to the older 125 KHz devices or the newer 13.56 MHz contactless RFID cards, most commonly known as contactless smartcards. Modern proximity cards are covered by the ISO 14443 (Proximity Card) standard. There is also a related ISO 15693 (Vicinity Card) standard. Proximity cards use an LC circuit. An IC, capacitor, and coil are connected in series. The card reader presents a field that excites the coil and charges the capacitor, which in turn energizes the IC. IC then transmits the card number via the coil to the card reader. The card readers communicate in Wiegand protocol that consists of a data 0 and a data 1 circuit. The earliest cards were 26 bit. As demand has increased bit size has increased to continue to provide unique numbers. Often, the first several bits can be made identical. These are called facility or site code. The idea is that company “Alice” has a facility code of xn and a card set of 0001 through 1000 and company “Bob” has a facility code of yn and a card set also of 0001 through 1000.    USB CCID USB is short for Universal Serial Bus. CCID is short for Chip/Smart Card Interface Devices. ICCD is short for Integrated Circuit(s) Card Devices). CCID is intended to use one generic device driver for different types of Smart Card readers without the need of each vendor having to supply its own software driver.    Wiegand refer to the following paragraphs regarding the Wiegand effect, Wiegand interface, Wiegand protocol, Wiegand wire.            The Wiegand effect is a pulse-generating phenomenon in a special alloy wire that is processed in such a way as to create two distinct magnetic regions in the same homogeneous piece of wire, referred to as a shell and a core. It occurs when such a specially processed wire (a “Wiegand wire”) is moved past a magnetic field. The two distinct magnetic regions react differently to any applied magnetic field: the shell requires a strong magnetic field to reverse its magnetic polarity, whereas the core will revert under weaker field conditions. The polarity of the wire will very rapidly shift and generate strong, short (˜10 μs) electrical pulses without any additional external power being supplied. This is known as the “Barkhausen jump” or “Barkhausen effect”. The Barkhausen jump can be detected by a coil wrapped around the material, when the small amount of voltage described above is generated.        The Wiegand interface is a defacto wiring standard, which arose from the popularity of Wigand effect RFID card readers in the 1980's. A Wiegand-compatible reader is normally connected to a Wiegand-compatible security panel.        The Wiegand interface uses two signal lines, termed data0 and data1. To transmit a zero bit, the data0 line is pulsed from 5V to 0V. To transmit a one bit, the data1 line is pulsed.        Wiegand protocol is a name for a system of sending data from a sensor such as a card reader or proximity sensor. It is commonly used to connect a card swipe mechanism to the rest of an electronic entry system. The sensor in such a system is often a Wiegand wire based on the Wiegand effect discovered by John R. Wiegand. The Wiegand protocol is apparently not formally defined in any one place.        The Wiegand protocol consists of three wires, one of which is a common ground, and two data transmission wires, usually called DATA0 and DATA1, but sometimes also labeled Data High and Data Low. When no data is being sent both DATA0 and DATA1 are at the high voltage. When a 0 is sent, the Data Low wire (also called DATA0) is at a low voltage while the Data High wire (also called DATA1) stays at the high voltage. When a 1 is sent, Data High is at the low voltage while Data Low stays at the high voltage. The high and low voltage levels are usually the TTL (transistor-transistor logic) voltage levels. A series of bits are sent, followed by a parity bit or bits. The number of bits sent at once varies according to the device, with 26 bits being common.        
Contact Interfaces
As used herein, “contact interfaces” (or “mechanical interface”) refers to mechanical (wired) connections between one device and another, such as via a cable or inserting a module into a socket. The following are examples of contact interfaces and/or devices that typically connect via a contact interface.    Ethernet A local-area network (LAN) architecture developed by Xerox Corporation in cooperation with DEC and Intel in 1976. Ethernet uses a bus or star topology and supports data transfer rates of 10 Mbps. The Ethernet specification served as the basis for the IEEE 802.3 standard, which specifies the physical and lower software layers. Ethernet uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands. It is one of the most widely implemented LAN standards. A newer version of Ethernet, called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet), supports data transfer rates of 100 Mbps. And the newest version, Gigabit Ethernet supports data rates of 1 gigabit (1,000 megabits) per second.    IEEE 1394 IEEE 1394 (also known as FireWire® and iLINK™) is a high-bandwidth isochronous (real-time) interface for computers, peripherals, and consumer electronics products such as camcorders, VCRs, printers, PCs, TVs, and digital cameras. With IEEE 1394-compatible products and systems, users can transfer video or still images from a camera or camcorder to a printer, PC, or television (TV), with no image degradation.    ISO 7816 ISO7816 defines specification of smart card contact interface IC chip and IC card. The main ISO standard relating to smart cards is ISO7816: “Identification cards: integrated circuit cards with contacts”.    SD Short for “Secure Digital”. SD is a technology standard for providing portable devices with non-volatile memory/storage and peripheral I/O expansion capability. On some devices this standard is implemented in the form of SD memory expansion cards, used to store digital information like applications, databases, photos, text, audio, video or MP3 music files, and an SD/SDIO expansion slot. The SD standard makes it possible to transfer information between devices that support SD expansion cards (e.g. transfer photos between a digital camera and a PDA by exchanging the SD expansion card), assuming both devices support the file format used for the transferred information (e.g. JPEG image file).    SDIO Short for “Secure Digital Input/Output”. SDIO is a part of the SD memory specification. It enables I/O (input/output) expansion for add-ons such as serial, modem, camera or GPS (global positioning system) cards. Whereas SD is only used for storage expansion cards, an SDIO capable expansion slot can also support SD expansion cards, while an SD-capable slot may not support an SDIO expansion card.    SIM Short for “Secure Identity Module” or “Subscriber Identification/Identity Module”. A SIM card inscribed with a customer's information and designed to be inserted into any mobile telephone. Usually SIM card phones work by GSM technology. The SIM card contains a user's GSM mobile account information. SIM cards are portable between GSM devices—the user's mobile subscriber information moves to whatever device houses the SIM.    USB Short for “Universal Serial Bus”. USB is a serial bus standard (standardized communications protocol) that enables data exchange between electronic devices. USB supports data transfer rates of up to 12 Mbps (megabits per second). A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices, such as mice, modems, and keyboards. USB also supports plug-and-play installation and “hot plugging”. USB is expected to completely replace serial and parallel ports. Hi-Speed USB (USB 2.0) similar to FireWire technology, supports data rates up to 480 Mbps.
Wireless Interfaces
As used herein, “wireless interfaces” refers to ultra-high radio frequency (RF) connections between one device and another, typically over a moderate distance, such as up to 100 meters, and in some cases (such as WiMAX) over long distances such as 50 km. The following are examples of wireless interfaces and/or devices that typically connect via a wireless interface.
WirelessTechnology that allows a user to communicate and/or connect to the Internet or mobile phone networks without physical wires. Wi-Fi, Bluetooth®, CDMA and GSM are all examples of wireless technology.    Bluetooth A wireless technology developed by Ericsson, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba that specifies how mobile phones, computers and PDAs interconnect with each other, with computers, and with office or home phones. The technology enables data connections between electronic devices in the 2.4 GHz range at 720 Kbps (kilo bits per second) within a 10 meter range. Bluetooth uses low-power radio frequencies to transfer information wirelessly between similarly equipped devices. A Bluetooth interface typically has a range of up to 10 meters, and is typically intended for private/personal communications such as connecting a user's mobile phone with his computer, or with a Bluetooth headset. Bluetooth bandwidth is specified at 720 Kbps.    IEEE 802.11 The IEEE standard for wireless Local Area Networks (LANs). It uses three different physical layers, 802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g.    PAN short for private area network. Using a wireless connection such as Bluetooth, a PAN has a range of only several meters, such as up to 10 meters.    UWB UWB is short for “Ultra Wide Band”. UWB is a wireless communications technology that transmits data in short pulses which are spread out over a wide swath of spectrum. Because the technology does not use a single frequency, UWB enjoys several potential advantages over single-frequency transmissions. For one, it can transmit data in large bursts because data is moving on several channels at once. Another advantage is that it can share frequencies, which is used by other applications because it transmits only for extremely short periods, which do not last long enough to cause interference with other signals.            UWB is a signaling technique using very short pulses to achieve very high transfer speeds. UWB it is not limited to wireless communication, UWB can also use mains-wiring, coaxial cable or twisted-pair cables to communicate. In a wireless mode, UWB may be similar in range to Bluetooth (typically up to 10 meters), but with a much greater bandwidth. Theoretically, WAN can achieve transfer speeds of up to 1 Gbit/s, versus only up to 3 Mbps for Bluetooth.            WAN short for wireless area network. Using a WAN connection such as 802.11, a WAN has a range of up to approximately 100 meters.    Wibree Wirebee is a digital radio technology (intended to become an open standard of wireless communications) designed for ultra low power consumption (button cell batteries) within a short range (10 meters/30 feet) based around low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Wibree is designed to work side-by-side with and complement Bluetooth. It operates in 2.4 GHz ISM band with physical layer bit rate of 1 Mbps. Main applications include devices such as wrist watches, wireless keyboards, toys and sports sensors where low power-consumption is a key design requirement. The technology was announced 2006 Oct. 3 by Nokia. Partners that currently license the technology and cooperate in defining the specification are Nordic Semiconductor, Broadcom Corporation, CSR and Epson.    Wi-Fi Short for “Wireless Fidelity”. Wireless technology, also known as 802.11b, enables you to access the Internet, to send and receive email, and browse the Web anywhere within range of a Wi-Fi access point, or HotSpot. Wi-Fi typically has a range of up to 100 meters, and is typically intended for connectivity to an Internet-capable appliance at a hot-spot. Wi-Fi bandwidth is specified at up to 54 Mbps (802.11a-5.0 GHz or 802.11b/g-2.4 GHz).    WiMAX short for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. (IEEE 802.16) WiMAX is a standards-based wireless technology that provides high-throughput broadband connections over long distances, such as several kilometers (up to 50 km with direct line-of-sight, up to 8 km without direct line-of-sight). WiMAX can be used for a number of applications, including “last mile” broadband connections, hotspots and cellular backhaul, and high-speed enterprise connectivity for business.    WLAN Short for “wireless local-area network”. Also referred to as LAWN. A WLAN is a type of local-area network that uses high-frequency radio waves rather than wires for communication between nodes (e.g., between PCs).    ZigBee ZigBee is the name of a specification for a suite of high level communication protocols using small, low-power digital radios based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard for wireless personal area networks (WPANs). ZigBee is targeted at RF applications that require a low data rate, long battery life, and secure networking.
Contactless Interfaces
As used herein, “contactless interfaces” refers to high radio frequency (RF) connections between one device and another, typically over a very short distance, such as only up to 50 cm. The following are examples of contactless interfaces and/or devices that typically connect via a contactless interface.    ISO 14443 ISO 14443 RFID cards; contactless proximity cards operating at 13.56 MHz with a read/write range of up to 10 cm. ISO 14443 defines the contactless interface smart card technical specification.    ISO 15693 ISO standard for contactless integrated circuits, such as used in RF-ID tags. ISO 15693 RFID cards; contactless vicinity cards operating at 13.56 MHz with a read/write range of up to 100 cm. (ISO 15693 is typically not used for financial transactions because of its relatively long range as compared with ISO 14443.)    NFC Short for “Near Field Communication”. NFC is a contactless connectivity technology that enables short-range communication between electronic devices. If two devices are held close together (for example, a mobile phone and a personal digital assistant), NFC interfaces establish a peer-to-peer protocol, and information such as phone book details can be passed freely between them. NFC devices can be linked to contactless smart cards, and can operate like a contactless smart card, even when powered down. This means that a mobile phone can operate like a transportation card, and enable fare payment and access to the subway. NFC is an open platform technology standardized in ECMA (European Computer Manufacturers Association) 340 as well as ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) TS 102 190 V1.1.1 and ISO/IEC 18092. These standards specify the modulation schemes, coding, transfer speeds, and frame format of the RF interface of NFC devices, as well as initialization schemes and conditions required for data collision-control during initialization—for both passive and active modes.    RFID Short for “Radio Frequency Identification”. An RFID device interacts, typically at a limited distance, with a “reader”, and may be either “passive” (powered by the reader) or “active” (having its own power source, such as a battery).
Wireless Versus Contactless Interfaces
Wireless and Contactless are two types of radio frequency (RF) interfaces. In a most general sense, both are “wireless” in that they do not require wires, and that they use RF. However, in the art to which this invention most nearly pertains, the terms “wireless” and “contactless” have two very different meanings and two very different functionalities.
The wireless interfaces of interest in the present invention are principally WLAN, Zigbee, Bluetooth, Wibree and UWB. These wireless interfaces operate at a distance of several meters, generally for avoiding “cable spaghetti” for example, Bluetooth for headsets and other computer peripherals. WLAN is typically used for networking several computers in an office.
The contactless interfaces of interest in the present invention are principally RFID contactless interfaces such as ISO 14443, 15693 and NFC. RFID operates at a maximum distance of 100 cm for the purpose of identification in applications such as access control. In a payment (financial transaction) application, the distance is restricted to 10 cm. For example, a contactless RFID smart card protocol according to ISO 14443 can be used for private, secure financial transactions in “real world” applications such as payment at a retailer.
Wireless and contactless use different communications protocols with different capabilities and are typically used for very different purposes. Note, for example, that 100 cm (ISO 15693, an RFID contactless protocol) is considered to be too great a distance to provide appropriate security for (contactless) financial transactions. But 100 cm would not be enough to provide a (wireless) network between office computers! Additionally, generally, contactless technology is primarily passive (having no power source of its own), deriving power to operate from the electromagnetic field generated by a nearby reader. Also, contactless technology, using the smart card protocol, is used for secure identification, authentication and payment. Wireless technologies, on the other hand, generally require their own power source (either batteries, or plugged in) to operate. Contactless is different than wireless; different protocol, different signal characteristics, different utility, different energy requirements, different capabilities, different purposes, different advantages, different limitations.
Further Distinctions Between Wireless Interfaces
A distinction has been made between contactless interfaces operating at very short distances (such as only up to 10 cm, 50 cm or 100 cm) such as for secure financial transactions, and wireless interfaces operating at moderate distance, such as up to 100 m.
A further distinction can be made within the definition of wireless (short distances, such as up to 10 meters) between wireless connections for a private area network (PAN) operating at close range of only several meters (and ensuring a reasonable level of privacy), and wireless connections for a wireless area network (WAN) operating at a medium/moderate range of up to 100 meters to provide public access to the Internet, at hot spots, or to set up a wireless LAN within an office environment.
Thus, for purposes of this disclosure there are identified (and defined) 4 different “levels” (or types) of communication interfaces using radio frequency (RF) for transferring data between compatible devices, as follows:                “contactless”, for very short distances, up to 100 cm (less than one meter), such as for performing secure applications such as access control, or financial transactions. (When carrying a smart card, a user needs to feel confident that the contents of the card cannot be snooped or skimmed from a nearby stranger wielding a laptop.) Within contactless, a further distinction can be made between extremely short distances (such as ISO 14443 operating at up to 10 cm distance, and useful for secure financial transactions) and moderately short distances (such as ISO 15693 having a read/write range of up to 100 cm, and useful for RFID used to collect tolls electronically).        “PAN wireless”, effective at short distances, up to several meters (such as 10 meters), for providing a personal network, generally for a single user (telephone, computer, Bluetooth headset, computer peripherals), and providing a small measure of privacy based on the limited range of the signal. Also, Infrared (optical transmission), Zigbee, Bluetooth and UWB are used in private area networks.        “WAN wireless”, effective at moderate distances, such as up to 100 meters, such as for networking computers in an office environment.        “WiMAX wireless”, effective at long distances, such as up to 50 kilometers, for providing broadband access to the public (simultaneously to many users), which can hardly be considered to be private, without accompanying encryption of data/signal packets.        